Updates on Bird Flu (23 December 2011)
The Ministry of Health (MOH) is monitoring the bird flu situation in Hong Kong closely. While the risk to Singapore is very low at the moment, the ministry has advised all travellers to Hong Kong to remain vigilant and adopt good hygiene practises. Travellers returning from Hong Kong should seek prompt medical attention if symptoms of fever and/or influenza-like illnesses are developed.
For commonly asked questions on bird flu, please refer to MOH’s website.
Latest update on haze condition
04 November: The latest 24-hour PSI reading is 21 as of 4pm. The Southwest Monsoon season lasting from June to September is the traditional dry season for the southern ASEAN region. Periods of dry weather, interspersed with the occasional thundery showers in the afternoon and "Sumatra" squalls in the predawn and early morning, are common during this season. An escalation of hotspot activities can be expected during extended periods of dry weather. With the prevailing winds blowing predominantly from the southeast or southwest, Singapore could be affected from time to time by transboundary smoke haze from Sumatra. The impact of the smoke haze is dependent on factors such as the proximity and extent of the fires, the strength and direction of the prevailing winds and the incidence and amount of rain.

12 October 2011
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) no longer advises against non-essential travel to Japan.
The coastal areas of Miyagi and Iwate prefectures, which were hit by the 11 March earthquake and tsunami, have gradually returned to normal.
In the case of Fukushima prefecture, Singaporeans should strictly observe the exclusion zone of 20 km around the Fukushima nuclear power plant, and the areas designated by the Japanese Government as "Deliberate Evacuation Area" and "Evacuation Prepared Area". Singaporeans are also strongly advised to check regularly the latest assessments and announcements from the Japanese Government and the IAEA on the nuclear situation.
Singaporeans travelling to Japan should be prepared for occasional tremors and take all necessary precautions. They should pay close attention to and heed any instructions from the Japanese Government. Singaporeans who are in Japan or intend to travel there are strongly advised to e-register at http://eregister.mfa.gov.sg/ so that they can be contacted in the event of an emergency.
Should Singaporeans require any consular assistance, they can contact our Embassy in Tokyo or MFA Duty Office at:
Singapore Embassy in Tokyo
Tel: +81 (3) 3586 9111/2 (Main Lines)
+81 (90) 3208 4122 (After office hours)
Email: singemb_tyo@sgmfa.gov.sg
Ministry of Foreign Affairs Duty Office (24-hours)
Tel: +65 6379 8800
+65 6379 8855
Email: mfa_duty_officer@mfa.gov.sg
Government continues with measures to safeguard Singapore from radioactive contamination
31 March 2011
JOINT STATEMENT BY THE SINGAPORE GOVERNMENT
Government continues WITH measures to safeguard Singapore from radioactive contamination
Imports of fruits and vegetables from Shizuoka Prefecture are suspended
The Singapore Government is following the situation at the Fukushima Nuclear Plant very closely. It is continuing its measures to safeguard Singapore from radioactive contamination.
Suspension of import of fruits and vegetables from Shizuoka Prefecture
2 Following the latest detection of radioactive contaminants in a sample of Komatsuna (Japanese Mustard Spinach) imported from the Shizuoka prefecture, the Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore (AVA) will extend its suspension of import of fruits and vegetables from Shizuoka with immediate effect.
3 AVA has increased its surveillance of food imports from Japan since the start of the incident at Fukushima Nuclear Plant to ensure that they are safe for consumption. To date, 379 samples of fruits and vegetables, seafood, meat, milk and milk products imported from Japan have been tested for radioactive contamination.
4 Tests done on shipments imported on 30 Mar 2011 showed that radioactive contaminants were found in the following sample of vegetables:
|
Item (Source)
|
Detection levels
|
|
Iodine-131
|
Cesium-134
|
Cesium-137
|
|
Komatsuna (Japanese Mustard Spinach) / Shizuoka
|
648bq/kg
|
155bq/kg
|
187bq/kg
|
5 Since 25 Mar 2011, all consignments of fruits and vegetables, seafood, meat, milk and milk products have been subjected to hold-and-test. This means that the products will only be released for sale when test results show that there is no radioactive contamination. If radioactive contaminants are detected in any sample, the affected shipment will be disposed of.
6 As such, food imported from Japan that is available in the market is safe for consumption. There is no cause for concern for consumers.
7 The table at Annex A provides the status of the suspension of food imports from Japan as at 31 March.
Screening of Cargo
8 The Immigration and Checkpoint Authority of Singapore (ICA) already has a screening system for all cargoes entering Singapore. This includes radiological screening. Such screening had been conducted even before the recent Japan nuclear incident.
Screening of Passengers, Aircraft and Vessels
9 Current developments do not necessitate the screening of aircraft and vessels from Japan.
10 As reported in a previous joint statement by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), on behalf of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Maritime Organization (IMO), World Health Organization (WHO) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO), there are also no health reasons to screen passengers from Japan.
11 Nonetheless, the Singapore Government continues to monitor the developments and will take appropriate measures should the need arise.
Radiation Levels in Singapore
12 The National Environment Agency (NEA) is monitoring radiation levels in Singapore on a continuous basis. Radiation levels in Singapore remain normal. Coastal water samples tested also do not show the presence of radioactive iodine and cesium.
13 PUB has also stepped up the daily monitoring of radioactivity level in Singapore's water supplies, including rain water in the catchments. These radioactivity levels remain well within the safety levels stipulated in the World Health Organisation Drinking Water Guidelines. Should any radioactive particles be detected, PUB waterworks are also able to remove them through the treatment process.
Risks of Cross-Contamination
14 NEA advises that there is low risk of cross-contamination from passengers, flight crew, baggage or cargo from Japan.
15 External contamination takes place when radioactive material such as radioactive dust becomes attached to a person or object. This type of contamination can be washed off. As the levels of radioactive contaminants are expected to be low, there is low likelihood for a person or object with external contamination to affect another person through contact.
16 Internal contamination may result from breathing in or swallowing radioactive material or through contamination of wounds. It is highly unlikely for a person with internal contamination to contaminate another person.
MOH health advisory
17 MOH's assessment is that any Singaporean who was outside the evacuation zones do not need any form of medical assessment nor do they need to seek prescriptions for potassium iodide (KI). Transient consumption of produce and animal products at current reported levels of contamination is also unlikely to pose a health hazard.
18 Singaporeans returning from the evacuation zone who feel unwell may wish to seek medical advice at the Emergency Department of their nearby Public Restructured Hospital (RH)[1] upon return to Singapore for medical consultation. Among those who have sought medical advice at the restructured hospitals, none has tested positive for radiation exposure so far.
Information Updates
19 The public can visit the micro-site on www.gov.sg/japanquake for the latest information and updates on the Fukushima situation. This site contains relevant FAQs, joint statements by relevant government agencies, hotline information and other useful links to relevant ministries and agencies. The microsite is also available through the www.gov.sg apps on the iPhone and Android phones, as well as the www.gov.sg mobile site.
[1] The Restructured Hospitals are: Singapore General Hospital, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, National University Hospital, Changi General Hospital, and Khoo Teck Puat Hospital. Children and pregnant women are advised to go to KK Women's and Children's Hospital.
Jointly Issued By:
Ministry of Information, Communication and the Arts
Ministry of Health
Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore
Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore
Immigration and Checkpoint Authority of Singapore
Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore
National Environment Agency
Public Utilities Board
Date: 31 Mar 2011
For further media queries:
MOH:
Lim Jing Ting
Manager (Media Relations)
Corporate Communications Division
Ministry of Health DID: 6325 9066, Mobile: 98248020
NEA:
Koh Su Ching
Assistant Director (Corporate Communications)
Media Handphone: 90887378
DID: 67319901
Email: koh_su_ching@nea.gov.sg
AVA:
Ms Elaine Pong
Deputy Director (Media & Customer Relations)
Or
Ms Sity Norani Rohani
Executive Manager (Media)
Media Line: 8444 7208
MOT:
MOT Media Duty Desk Officer
Email: media_relations@mot.gov.sg
Mobile: 9011 4110
MHA:
Ms Ruth Ong
Assistant Director (Corporate Relations)
Email: ruth_ong@mha.gov.sg
Mobile: 9652 5977
MICA:
Mr Philip Sim
Deputy Director (Public Communications Division)
DID: 6837 9827
Email: philip_sim@mica.gov.sg
For Further Information
For more information on the various areas of concern, please refer to the following sites and hotlines:
- Average daily radiation level in Singapore: NEA's website (www.nea.gov.sg), Twitter (NEAsg) and Facebook accounts (CGSingapore) or NEA Call Centre at Tel: 1800-2255632.
- MFA's travel advisory to Japan: Singaporeans who cannot avoid travelling to Japan at this time should eRegister with the MFA at www.mfa.gov.sg.
- AVA's surveillance of food imports: AVA's website (www.ava.gov.sg). For general enquiries, the public can contact AVA's hotline at Tel: 6325 7625
- Health concerns and radiation exposure matters Ministry of Health's FAQs (PDF) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) FAQs on 'Nuclear Concerns in Japan.
- For health-related queries, public can contact the MOH Hotline at Tel: 1800 333 9999
- Monitoring of water supply: PUB at Tel: 1800-2846600
Annex A
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FROM AVA
Updates on test results
1 To date, 379 samples of fruits and vegetables, seafood, meat, milk and milk products have been tested. The latest results of samples collected from shipments imported on 30 Mar 2011 showed that radioactive contaminants were found in the following sample of vegetables:
|
Item (Source)
|
Detection levels
|
|
Iodine-131
|
Cesium-134
|
Cesium-137
|
|
Komatsuna (Japanese Mustard Spinach) / Shizuoka
|
648bq/kg
|
155bq/kg
|
187bq/kg
|
* Becquerel (bq) is a measurement of radioactivity levels. The Codex guidelines for radionuclides in food (other than infant food) for Iodine 131 is 100 bq/kg, Cesium 134 is 1000 bq/kg and Cesium 137 is 1000 bq/kg.
** Test results are provided by the Health Sciences Authority's Applied Sciences Group
Status of suspension of Japan food imports
2 AVA has suspended food imports from prefectures where radioactive contamination of food products has been detected. The status of our suspension of food imports from Japan as at 31 Mar 2011 is as follows:
|
Source
|
Item
|
|
Fukushima, Ibaraki*, Tochigi* and Gunma*
|
Milk, milk products, seafood, meat, fruits and vegetables
|
|
Shizuoka, Ehime, Chiba*, Kanagawa*, Tokyo* and Saitama*
|
Fruits and vegetables
|
* Prefectures in the Kanto Region
###
AVA suspends import of fruits and vegetables from Kanto region in Japan
26 March 2011
Detection of radioactive contaminants in another two samples of vegetables from Japan
Radioactive contaminants have been detected in another two samples of vegetables from Japan. The contaminated samples were imported from the prefectures of Kanagawa and Tokyo. In addition, the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare had reported the detection of high radioactivity levels in some vegetables from Saitama.
2 In view of the latest developments, the Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority (AVA) will extend its suspension on the import of fruits and vegetables to include the prefectures of Kanagawa, Tokyo and Saitama. This means the entire Kanto Region of Japan is now suspended from exporting fruits and vegetables to Singapore as AVA had earlier suspended the Kanto prefectures of Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma and Chiba.
Status of Suspension of Japan Food Imports
3 The status of our suspension of food imports from Japan as at 26 Mar 2011 is as follows:
|
Source
|
Item
|
|
Fukushima, Ibaraki*, Tochigi* and Gunma*
|
Milk, milk products, seafood, meat, fruits and vegetables
|
|
Ehime, Chiba*, Kanagawa*, Tokyo* and Saitama*
|
Fruits and vegetables
|
* Prefectures in the Kanto Region
Food imports from Japan subjected to "hold-and-test"
4 Since 25 Mar 2011, all consignments of fruits and vegetables, seafood, meat, milk and milk products imported from Japan have been subjected to hold-and-test. This means that the products will only be released for sale when test results show that there is no radioactive contamination. If radioactive contaminants are detected in any sample, the affected shipment will be disposed.
Updates on test results
5 To date, 287 samples of fruits, vegetables, seafood, meat and processed food have been tested. The latest results of samples collected from shipments imported on 25 and 26 Mar 2011 showed that radioactive contaminants were found in the following two samples of vegetables :
|
Item (Source)
|
Detection levels
|
|
Iodine-131
|
Cesium-134
|
Cesium-137
|
|
Cabbage (Kanagawa)
|
936bq/kg
|
242bq/kg
|
474bq/kg
|
|
Leek (Tokyo)
|
226bq/kg
|
-
|
-
|
* Becquerel (bq) is a measurement of radioactivity levels. The Codex guidelines for radionuclides in food (other than infant food) for Iodine 131 is 100 bq/kg, Cesium 134 is 1000 bq/kg and Cesium 137 is 1000 bq/kg.
** Test results are provided by the Health Sciences Authority’s Applied Sciences Group
No cause for alarm for consumers
6 Food imported from Japan that is available in the market is safe for consumption. There is no cause for concern for consumers as the affected consignments have not been released for sale under our "hold-and-test surveillance programme.
7 AVA will continue to closely monitor and test food imports from Japan.
8 The public could visit the Japan Earthquake microsite at www.gov.sg (www.gov.sg/japanquake) for latest updates and information from the authorities. They could also visit AVA site at www.ava.gov.sg.

Source : http://mapsof.net/japan/static-maps/png/regions-and-prefectures-of-japan
AVA suspends imports of food from affected prefectures in Japan
23 March 2011
1 AVA has received information that the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) has detected high radioactivity levels in raw milk and vegetables from Fukushima, Ibaraki, Tochigi and Gunma prefectures.
2 In addition, the Japanese Government has ordered a stop to the sale of raw milk and certain types of vegetables from the affected prefectures of Fukushima and Ibaraki.
3 In view of the recent developments, AVA has taken the precautionary measure to immediately suspend the import of milk and milk products, fruits and vegetables, seafood and meat from Fukushima, Ibaraki, Tochigi and Gunma.
4 The suspension is in line with the precautionary approach adopted by other countries such as U.S and Australia.
5 Meanwhile, AVA will continue to closely monitor and test imports of food from Japan.
6 The public could visit the Japan Earthquake microsite at www.gov.sg (www.gov.sg/japanquake) for latest updates and information from the authorities. They could also visit AVA site at www.ava.gov.sg.
JOINT STATEMENT BY THE SINGAPORE GOVERNMENT
Radiation level in Singapore safe
22 Mar 2011
Agencies have measures to deal with potential impact.
The Singapore Government has been following the situation at the Fukushima Nuclear Plant closely. The current assessment is that the likelihood of any radioactive plume reaching Singapore remains very low.
Low risk of radioactive plume reaching Singapore
2 NEA's round-the-clock monitoring of radiation levels since the start of the accident shows an average reading of about 0.08 micro-Sieverts per hour. This is safe and is within the normal range of Singapore's natural background level.
3 Modelling studies conducted by NEA, and those carried out by the World Meteorological Organization-designated Regional Specialised Meteorological Centres for Environmental Emergency Response, continue to show that the likelihood of any radioactive plume reaching Singapore is very low. Even in the event that prevailing winds were to transport a plume to Singapore, the impact is expected to be insignificant. The radioactive concentration of the plume, after travelling the long distance, would have been significantly reduced to the normal background levels.
No cause for concern over the radiation levels of food imported from Japan
4 The media reported that some food products (liquid milk and spinach) from affected regions in Japan, and fava beans exported to Taiwan, were found to have higher levels of radiation. The AVA confirmed that there are no food imports from the affected regions in Japan since the start of the incident. Nonetheless, it has stepped up its surveillance of food imports from Japan to ensure that they are safe for consumption.
5 The AVA added that samples of all fresh produce exported from Japan after 11 Mar 2011 are being tested for radioactive contaminants. To date, more than 120 samples of fresh produce such as seafood, fruits, vegetables and meat were tested. No radioactive contamination has been detected thus far.
MOH health advisory
6 MOH continues to assess that any Singaporean who was outside the evacuation zones will not need any form of medical assessment. Transient consumption of produce and animal products at current reported levels of contamination is also unlikely to have any immediate adverse health effects. Singaporeans returning from the evacuation zone who feel unwell may wish to seek medical advice at the Emergency Department of their nearby Public Restructured Hospital (RH)[1] upon return to Singapore for medical consultation.
No health reasons to screen passengers from Japan
7 The joint statement by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), on behalf of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Maritime Organization (IMO), World Health Organization (WHO) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO), reported that there are no health reasons that would require the screening of passengers from Japan, and there is no health risk associated with increased levels of radiation that have been detected at some airports. Nonetheless developments will be continually monitored and appropriate measures effected should the need arise.
For Further Information
8 MICA has established a micro-site on www.gov.sg on the Government response to the Fukushima situation as a one-stop information portal for the public. This site contains links to FAQs, the joint statement, hotlines and useful links to relevant ministries and agencies. The microsite is also available through the www.gov.sg apps on the iPhone and Android phones, as well as the www.gov.sg mobile site.
9 For more information on the various areas of concern, please refer to the following sites and hotlines:
- Average daily radiation level in Singapore: NEA's website (www.nea.gov.sg), Twitter (NEAsg) and Facebook accounts (CGSingapore) or NEA Call Centre at Tel: 1800-2255632.
- MFA's travel advisory to Japan: Singaporeans who cannot avoid travelling to Japan at this time should eRegister with the MFA at www.mfa.gov.sg.
- AVA's surveillance of food imports: AVA's website (www.ava.gov.sg). For general enquiries, the public can contact AVA's hotline at Tel: 6325 7625
- Health concerns and radiation exposure matters Ministry of Health's FAQs (PDF) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) FAQs on 'Nuclear Concerns in Japan.
- For health-related queries, public can contact the MOH Hotline at Tel: 1800 333 9999
- Monitoring of water supply: PUB at Tel: 1800-2846600
[1] The Restructured Hospitals are: Singapore General Hospital, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, National University Hospital, Changi General Hospital, and Khoo Teck Puat Hospital. Children and pregnant women are advised to go to KK Women's and Children's Hospital.
Jointly Issued By:
Ministry of Information, Communication and the Arts
Ministry of Health
Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore
Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore
National Environment Agency
For further media queries:
MOH:
Lim Jing Ting
Manager (Media Relations)
Corporate Communications Division
Ministry of Health DID: 6325 9066, Mobile: 98248020
NEA:
Koh Su Ching
Assistant Director (Corporate Communications)
Media Handphone: 90887378
DID: 67319901
Email: koh_su_ching@nea.gov.sg
AVA:
Ms Elaine Pong
Deputy Director (Media & Customer Relations)
Or
Ms Sity Norani Rohani
Executive Manager (Media)
Media Line: 8444 7208
MOT:
MOT Media Duty Desk Officer
Email: media_relations@mot.gov.sg
Mobile: 9011 4110
MICA:
Mr Philip Sim
Deputy Director (Public Communications Division) DID: 6837 9827
Email: philip_sim@mica.gov.sg
Find out more: Japan Earthquake: Information Updates
Frequently Asked Questions
Update from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs

17 Mar 2011
In response to media queries for an update on the situation in Japan, the MFA Spokesman said:
"We continue to advise against all non-essential travel to Japan.
In the aftermath of the earthquake, tsunami and nuclear power plant problems in Japan, we have been advising our nationals in or around the affected areas to move to safer locations. The Singapore Embassy in Tokyo has made arrangements for Singaporeans living within the radius of 80 to 100 km from the nuclear power plant to leave for safer locations today. However, 20 Singaporeans in Sendai (approximately 90km from Fukushima) have indicated to our mission that they wish to stay behind. Our Embassy will continue to stay in touch with them.
We know that the Japanese Government is doing its utmost to respond to this evolving and very difficult situation. Singaporeans in Japan should pay close attention to and heed instructions from the Japanese Government.
In view of the situation, we strongly recommend that:
· Singaporeans currently in Fukushima and Miyagi Prefectures should evacuate the area with immediate effect.
· Singaporeans in prefectures neighbouring Fukushima, such as Yamagata, and Niigata, as well as in the Kanto region (Tokyo, Chiba, Kanagawa, Saitama, Gunma, Ibaraki, Tochigi), should consider leaving if they have no pressing reasons to remain there.
The Singapore Embassy in Tokyo has been assisting Singaporeans who wished to leave Japan with travel arrangements, immigration or visa-related issues, and in some urgent cases, helped arrange local transportation. We are working closely with Singapore Airlines to ensure that there is sufficient capacity for Singaporeans wishing to return to Singapore, including the possibility of mounting extra flights. Consular Teams from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Singapore Embassy in Tokyo are stationed at Narita and Haneda Airports and will render the necessary consular assistance to Singaporeans who decide to return to Singapore.
Singaporeans wishing to return home or travel to a third country may also wish to consider commercial flights from the Kansai International Airport in Osaka, the Central Japan International Airport in Nagoya, and the Fukuoka International Airport in Fukuoka. They should closely monitor the situation and follow instructions from their local authorities.
In case of doubt or should they require any consular assistance, Singaporeans should contact the Singapore Embassy in Tokyo or the MFA Duty Officer (24hrs) at:
Singapore Embassy in Tokyo
Tel: +81 3 3586-1824
+81 3 3586-5617
+81 3 3586-9175
+81 90 3208 4122
+81 90 2435 5543
Email: singemb_tyo@sgmfa.gov.sg
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Tel: +65 6379 8800, +65 6379 8855
Email: mfa_duty_officer@mfa.gov.sg
. . . . .
MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS
SINGAPORE
MFA Spokesman's Comments in responses to media queries on the situation in Japan
15 Mar 2011
In response to media queries on the situation in Japan, the MFA spokesman said:
The situation in the areas most affected by the earthquake of 11 March 2011 continues to be fluid. The Japan Metropolitan Agency announced on 13 March that there is a 70% chance of a magnitude 7.0 or greater earthquake in the same region as the magnitude 9.0 earthquake within the next 3 days. This may trigger another tsunami and aftershocks of over magnitude 6.0. We are also monitoring closely reports from the Fukushima nuclear facility. Japanese authorities have confirmed that the situation remains serious but stressed that they have the situation under control.
In view of the current situation, we would strongly urge Singaporeans to defer non-essential travel to Japan. Singaporeans who cannot avoid travelling to Japan at this time are strongly advised to eRegister with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs at http://eregister.mfa.gov.sg/. This will enable the Ministry and our Embassy in Tokyo to contact them and render them the necessary consular assistance in case of emergencies.
Singaporeans who are in Japan should continue to avoid areas that are affected by the earthquake and tsunami [Fukushima, Miyagi, Aomori, Iwate, Yamagata and Ibaraki Prefectures and surrounding districts] as there continues to be many disruptions on the ground. They should be prepared to face significant inconveniences in their travel in Japan, take all necessary precautions for their personal safety, monitor the local news diligently and take heed of the Japanese government's advice and guidance. If they have any concerns about their personal safety, they should consider moving to a safer location. Singaporeans wishing to leave Japan should monitor closely the situation, check with local authorities as the main access roads to airports may be closed and trains may not be running on schedule, and reconfirm their flights with the relevant airlines.
We will render the necessary consular assistance to affected Singaporeans. If assistance is required, Singaporeans should contact the Singapore Embassy in Tokyo or the MFA Duty Officer (24hrs) at:
Singapore Embassy in Tokyo
Tel: +81 90 3208 4122 / +81 90 2435 5543
Email: singemb_tyo@sgmfa.gov.sg
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Tel: +65 6379 8800/ +65 6379 8855
Email: mfa_duty_officer@mfa.gov.sg
Floods
Safety Advisory for Floods by PUB
For information on the background of localised flash floods in Singapore, ways in which the PUB, Singapore's national water agency, manages flood risks and the public's role in alleviating the effects of floods, check out the flyer on "
Flood Management in Singapore".
SLA OneMap
Dengue Fever
Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease (HFMD)
Other Flu Information
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Bird Flu @ Crisis.Gov.Sg
1 April 2009
In today's highly interconnected world, the spread of infectious diseases has emerged as a significant challenge to global security... |